Jan Polak (c. 1440-1519), also known as Johannes Polonus or Polack, was an eminent late Gothic and early Renaissance painter whose artistic activity, according to the most commonly accepted conception, combined the traditions of Cracovian and German painting. Although his life is full of enigmas, he remains one of the important figures for the understanding of art at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries in Central Europe.

Origins and early years

The traditionally accepted conception accepts that Jan Polak was probably born in Kraków, although there is no clear documentary evidence of his early life. The first name 'Jan' and the surname 'Polak' may point to his Polish roots, although in Germany the surname Polack was also relatively common and could also be translated into Latin as Polonus, which is how the artist was referred to. German scholars such as C. Glaser and Dr Ernest Buchner (1892-1962), considered the origins of his artistic career to be linked to Krakow. However, there is no complete consensus on this; this theory was challenged in the early 21st century by Sabine Rosthal. The concept of the artist's Krakow origins was cemented by Ernest Buchner, who , nota bene, created the first attempt at a catalogue of the artist's works. Earlier, in 1908, Michael Hartig (1878-1960) had discovered in the books of the abbey in Weihenstephan a reference to the artist Jan Polak, who was successfully linked to an altarpiece created there. All other works identified as works by Jan Polak, and increasingly today as works of Jan Polak's workshop, are linked to him by stylistic similarities. It is these that have led to the identification of the artist's Krakow roots, based on similarities with, among other things, paintings from the main altar of the former Dominican church in Krakow. Thus, according to researchers referring to these findings, Jan Polak may have been one of the artists working at the creation of the so-called 'Kraków school of painting' in the second half of the 15th century. He is credited with the authorship of the anonymous paintings from St Idzi's Church in Kraków, which are characterised by the precise realism and expressiveness typical of his later works. Sabina Rothal, mentioned earlier, suggests that Jan Polak may have been associated with Munich or its surroundings, where he may also have received his education. She draws attention to the fact that the surname 'Polack' was used in Bavaria independently of any connection to Poland, and that the artist showed influences from Dutch, French and Upper Bavarian painting. Undoubtedly, his style, or rather his workshop, including the influence of Dutch realism and the use of innovative painting techniques, indicates an artist with broad horizons. However, the lack of clear documentary evidence of his origins means that an analysis of his genealogy remains largely speculative.

Departure to Germany

The concept assuming the artist's Polish roots also explains his appearance in Munich. Around 1475, Jan Polak is supposed to have made his way to Munich, which may have been linked to the 'wedding in Landshut' - the wedding of Jadwiga Jagiellonka, daughter of Casimir Jagiellon, to the Bavarian Duke George Wittelsbach. It is presumed that Pole may have been part of the Polish royal retinue or was spotted by German patrons while still in Krakow. Pole was first mentioned in 1482, when he was registered in the Munich tax books as a painter running a workshop in the 'inner part of the city of Petri'. The lack of earlier documents makes it impossible to establish his teachers or the period of his training, or to confirm his origins. His position in Munich's milieu is most clearly evidenced by the fact that he was president of Munich's St. Luke's Guild on as many as fourteen occasions between 1493 and 1519, and that he received prestigious commissions from the Wittelsbach princely house, as well as from churches and monasteries in and around Munich, and finally from the Munich city authorities, for example, for wall paintings on the city gates or for occasional decorations, which have not been preserved. It is also known that the artist was married to the daughter of the Munich stained glass painter Martin, and his workshop is sometimes also credited with the design of stained glass windows.

Undoubtedly, the last decade is the period of greatest creative activity for the artist, who later seems to have painted less, commissioning more work from his workshop. Undoubtedly, he was not only a gifted artist, but also a skilful entrepreneur who was able to successfully manage a rather large workshop. It should be mentioned that such a practice was common at the time; many works that function as the work of a single artist were realised by a team of artists. Obviously, the most important part of the works belonged to the master, his style also usually had to be submitted to by other artists, and this was undoubtedly the case in Jan Polak's workshop. Undoubtedly, in terms of concept and key elements, these are the works of the master, but created with the participation of other artists - apprentices and journeymen. The master usually finished the key, and therefore central, elements of the composition, as well as the faces of the most important figures. Other artists carried out preparatory work, but also painted some details or less important parts of the painting, hence the sometimes variety and different quality of execution within one painting. Here, too, it is necessary to separate them from the work, which is strictly workshop-based, and therefore executed by the workshop, but by collaborators.

At present, some 90 works are attributed to the artist's workshop, but in the case of some of them this attribution raises serious doubts, and not all of them have survived to our times.

Specificity of Jan Polak's work

Jan Polak's style is characterised by expressive realism, which in some works turns into brutal naturalism. The figures depicted by the artist are full of dynamism, expression and emotion, which makes his works particularly moving. A characteristic feature of his work is his attention to detail in depicting the anatomy of the human body, which is particularly evident in dramatic scenes of Christ's passion, such as the Crucifixion from the Franciscan Church in Munich.

Polak often exposed the physical suffering of the figures, depicting tormented bodies with anatomical precision - from streaks of blood to realistic wounds and faces twisted with pain. This approach to realism transcended the canons of decorativeness and idealisation, moving closer to naturalism, which aimed to convey the raw truth of the human condition.

Expression is a key element of Polak's style. His figures seem almost to 'burst' with emotion - from the deep despair of the Madonna in the passion scenes to the fury and brutality of the soldiers playing dice under the cross. The movement and gestures of the figures in his compositions are often dynamic, expressive and full of tension. Polak did not shy away from depicting figures in extreme poses, which emphasised the drama of the biblical scenes.

One example of this dynamic is the depiction of two thieves crucified next to Christ in the altarpiece from the Franciscan church. Their bodies are bent and twisted in a way that not only suggests physical suffering, but also reinforces the emotional weight of the scene.

Flemish and Nuremberg inspirations

Pole drew inspiration from Flemish masters such as Rogier van der Weyden and Dirk Bouts. Elements typical of Flemish painting are evident in his works, such as the rich details of costumes, fabrics and accessories, and the painterly nature of the landscapes. Also typical of Pole were the 'scenographic' backgrounds of his paintings - rocky landscapes, architecture full of detail or crowds of anonymous figures.

At the same time, the artist was influenced by Nuremberg artists such as Hans Pleydenwurff and Michal Wohlgemuth. However, his compositions are characterised by greater dynamism and emotional tension than the Nuremberg works. Whereas Pleydenwurff depicted scenes with detachment and solemnity, the Pole exposed drama and chaos, giving his works a unique character.

Symbolism and brutality

One of the distinguishing elements of Polak's work was his tendency to expose the violent aspects of biblical scenes. One can see in his paintings both the influence of medieval mysticism and the new Renaissance interest in the human body. This approach is best exemplified by the details of the negative figures - soldiers, thugs and persecutors, whom the artist depicted as grotesque, contorted faces with bulging eyes and supernaturally large mouths.

One of the most characteristic examples of this tendency is the figure of the soldier playing dice against Christ's clothes in The Crucifixion. His face, with its huge mouth and vulgar expression, is almost exaggerated, highlighting his moral degradation.

Despite the strong influence of various artistic traditions, Jan Polak developed his own style that set him apart from his contemporaries. His works are characterised by an individual approach to religious themes that combines realism with drama. Polak transcended the boundaries of the era, depicting the raw, often brutal truth of human suffering and emotion.

Jan Polak remains one of the most fascinating artists of the late 15th and early 16th centuries. His work, although partly forgotten, was a key element in the development of the Munich school of painting. His paintings, full of realism, dynamism and expression, contributed to the enrichment of European art of the period, and his style continues to inspire scholars and painting enthusiasts.

Works by Jan Polak

Altarpiece from the Benedictine monastery in Weihenstephana

date of creation: 1483-1489 r.

owner: Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen (Alte Pinakothek), Munich

a. obverse 'St Benedict as father of Western monasticism', reverse 'Christ nailed to the cross'

dimensions: 235 x 133 cm

technique: oil, wood

inv. no. 1397

on display in the Diocesan Museum in Freising

b. Obverse "Death of a saint", reverse "Christ on the Mount of Olives"

dimensions: 147 x 129 cm

technique: tempera, wood

Inv. no. 1402

exhibited in the Diocesan Museum in Freising

c. obverse "St Corbinian and the bear", reverse: "Christ carrying the cross"

dimensions: 147 x 129 cm

technique: tempera, wood

Inv. no. 1400

exhibited in the Diocesan Museum in Freising

d. St Stephen's Disputation

dimensions: 151 x 126 cm

technique: tempera, wood

Inv. No. 1396

Works attributed to Jan Polak (selection)

1. paintings from the altarpiece of the main altar of the Franciscan Church of St Anthony

The main altarpiece (triptych) of the foundation of Duke Albrecht IV of Bavaria and his wife Kunigunda of Habsburg was created as a narrative passion cycle consisting of ten scenes. The scenes depicted below form a chronological cycle beginning with the scene of the Prayer in the Garden, followed by the capture, the Passion and the Crucifixion, and ending with the Deposition in the tomb.

date of creation: 1492 r.

technique: tempera and oil underpainting, wood gilding

Location: Bavarian State Museum (Bayerisches Nationalmuseum), Munich, exhibited in Room 15 (as of 2024).

a. central panel: "Crucifixion"

dimensions: 235 x 279 x 2 cm

technique: oil, spruce wood

Inv. no. MA 3716 a

b. right wing obverse: "The Captivity of Jesus", reverse: "Christ carrying the Cross"

dimensions: 235 x 133 cm

technique: oil, wood

Inv. no. MA 3716 c

c. left wing: obverse "Christ on the Mount of Olives", reverse "Scourging of Christ"

dimensions: 235 x 133 cm

technique: oil, wood

Inv. no. MA 3716 b

d. "Ecce Homo"

dimensions: 205 x 130 cm

technique: oil, spruce wood

Inv. no. 10/220

e. "Deposition of Christ into the tomb"

dimensions: 205 x 130 cm

technique: oil, spruce wood

Inv. no. 10/219

f. "Crowning with Thorns"

dimensions: 205 x 130 cm

technique: oil, fir wood

Inv. no. 10/218

g. "Nailing of Christ to the Cross"

dimensions: 235 x 133 cm

technique: oil, fir wood

Inv. no. 10/217

2. " Finding of the Cross by St Helen ".

date of creation: ca. 1490

technique: oil on board

Location: Basilica of St. Martin in Amberg, side chapel

https://baza.polonika.pl/pl/obiekty/obraz-jana-polaka-w-bazylice-pw-sw-marcina-w-ambergu

3. paintings from the main altar of the castle chapel in Blutemburg

creation date: circa 1500

technique: oil, wood

Location: Blutemburg Castle Chapel, Munich

a. "Throne of Grace"

b. "Baptism of Christ"

c. "Coronation of the Blessed Virgin Mary".

4. " Lantfried, Waldram and Eliland, founders of the monastery at Benediktbeuern ".

date of creation: 1494 r.

dimensions: 88.5 x 236.7 cm

technique: tempera, wood

location: Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen (Alte Pinakothek), Munich, Inv. No. 659

5th " Portrait of a young man" (self-portrait?)

date of creation: 1477 (?)

dimensions: 37.5 cm x 27.5

technique: oil on board

location: Municipal Gallery in Lenbachhaus und Kunstbau (Städtische Galerie im Lenbachhaus und Kunstbau), Munich, Inv. No. G277

Obverse " Birth of Christ ", reverse " Meeting at the Golden Gate" .

date of creation: ca. 1500

dimensions: 83 x 60.5 cm

technique: tempera, wood

owner: Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen (Alte Pinakothek), Munich, Inv. No. 4554

exhibited: Burghausen, State Gallery

7. " Burial of the Apostle James the Elder ".

date of creation: ca. 1500

dimensions: 83 x 60.5 cm

technique: tempera, wood

owner: Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen (Alte Pinakothek), Munich, inv. no. 10649

exhibited: Burghausen, State Gallery

Obverse ' Mary as Queen of Heaven ' , reverse ' Crucifixion of Peter '.

date of creation: ca. 1500

dimensions: 137 x 63 cm

technique: tempera, wood

owner: Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen (Alte Pinakothek), Munich, Inv. No. 10396

exhibited: Regensburg, Historical Museum

9. the " Stigmatisation of St. Francis" .

date of creation: ca. 1500

dimensions: 137 x 63 cm

technique: tempera, wood

owner: Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen (Alte Pinakothek), Munich, Inv. No. 9902

exhibited: Regensburg, Historical Museum

10. paintings from the side altar of the castle chapel in Blutemburg

date of construction: circa 1500

technique: oil, wood

location: Blutemburg Castle Chapel, Munich

a. "Salvator Mundi surrounded by saints".

b. predella: The Fourteen Holy Helpers

11. paintings from the side altar of the Blutemburg Castle Chapel

date of construction: circa 1500

technique: oil, wood

Location: Blutemburg Castle Chapel, Munich

a. "Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary".

b. predella: Holy family

12. " The Vocation of the Apostle James the Elder"

date of creation: ca. 1500

dimensions: 79 x 37 cm

technique: tempera, wood

location: Bayerische Staatsgemäldesammlungen (Alte Pinakothek), Munich, Inv. No. 10648

Scourging of Christ" .

creation date: ca. 1490

dimensions: 95 x 75 cm

technique: oil on board

location: Museum of the City of Munich (Das Münchner Stadtmuseum), inv. no. GM-IId/245

14 " Simon of Cyrene helps Jesus carry the cross".

date of creation: ca. 1490

Dimensions: 98 x 75 cm

technique: oil on board

Location: Museum of the City of Munich (Das Münchner Stadtmuseum), Inv. No. GM-IId/246

15. eight panels from the wings of the main altarpiece from the Church of St. Arsacius in Ilmmünster

Date of creation: ca. 1500

Technique: tempera on board

Location: St. Arsacius Church, Ilmmünster

a. "St Arsacius receives episcopal ordination".

b. "Death of Saint Arsacius"

c. "The beheading of the saint"

d. "Transfer of the saint's remains"

e. "The Passion Scene"

f. "The Passion Scene"

g "Three Kings"

16. "Mary - Mantle of Protection [in a dress with ears] with the Sänftl family".

date of creation: 1505-1510

technique: oil on board

Location: St Mary's Cathedral, Munich

17th Series of wall paintings

date of creation: 1479 (?)

technique: wall paintings

location: St. Wolfgang in Pipping, Munich

a. "Dormition of the Virgin Mary".

b. "Wise and foolish virgins"

c. cycle of the Passion of the Lord

d. a cycle with representations of Old Testament prophets

However, the artist's authorship is disputed

18th Portrait of a Benedictine monk

date of creation: 1484

dimensions: 57 x 41 cm

technique: oil on board

location: Museo Nacional Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid, inv. no. Nº INV. 325 (1934.17)

19th Four altar wings from the Los Angeles County Museum of Art

ca: 1500

dimensions: 167 x 50 x 2 cm (each wing)

technique: oil on board

location: Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA)

a. "Adam and Eve"

b. "The Three Wanderers at Sarah and Abraham's"

c. "Baptism of Christ"

d. "Christ teaching in the temple".

20. two paintings from the altar set with portraits of the founders Wilhelm and Sabina von Haslang, workshop of Jan Polak

ca: 1504

dimensions: 52 x 48 cm (each)

technique: oil on board

location: Municipal Gallery in the Lenbachhaus and Kunstbau (Städtische Galerie im Lenbachhaus und Kunstbau), Munich, Inv. No. G830 / G831