Although his life is shrouded in mystery, he remains one of the key figures for understanding art in Central Europe at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries.

Origins and early life

The prevailing view is that Jan Polak was born in Kraków, although there are no documents relating to his early life. The first name ‘Jan’ and the surname ‘Polak’ may indicate his Polish roots, although in Germany the surname ‘Polack’ was also relatively common and could likewise be translated into Latin as Polonus, which is how the artist was referred to.

German researchers such as C. Glaser and Dr Ernest Buchner (1892–1962) concluded that the beginnings of his artistic career were linked to Kraków. However, there is no complete consensus on this – this theory was challenged at the beginning of the 21st century by Sabine Rosthal. The notion of the artist’s Kraków origins was established by Ernest Buchner, who, incidentally , produced the first attempt at a catalogue of the artist’s works.

Earlier, in 1908, Michael Hartig (1878–1960) discovered a reference in the records of Weihenstephan Abbey to the artist Jan Polak, whom he managed to link to an altar created there. The remaining works, formerly identified as by Jan Polak but now increasingly attributed to his workshop, are associated with him on the basis of stylistic similarities. It is these works that have led to the identification of the artist’s Kraków roots, based on similarities with, amongst other things, the paintings from the high altar of the former Dominican church in Kraków.

According to researchers drawing on these findings, Jan Polak may have been one of the artists contributing to the so-called ‘Krakow school of painting’ in the second half of the 15th century. He is credited with the authorship of anonymous paintings from the Church of St Giles in Kraków, which are characterised by precise realism and expressiveness, typical of his later works.

Sabina Rothal, mentioned earlier, suggests that Jan Polak may have had links to Munich or its surroundings, where he may also have received his training. She draws attention to the fact that the surname ‘Polack’ was used in Bavaria independently of any connection with Poland, and that the artist displayed influences from Netherlandish, French and Upper Rhenish painting.

Undoubtedly, his style – or rather his technique – including the influence of Netherlandish realism and the use of innovative painting techniques, points to an artist of broad horizons. However, the lack of clear-cut documents confirming his origins means that any analysis of his genealogy remains largely speculative.

The move to Germany

The theory positing the artist’s Polish roots also explains his appearance in Munich. Around 1475, Jan Polak is said to have arrived in Munich, which may have been connected with the ‘wedding in Landshut’ – the marriage of Jadwiga Jagiellonka, daughter of Kazimierz Jagiellończyk, to the Bavarian Duke George of Wittelsbach. It is thought that Polak may have been part of the Polish royal retinue or may have been spotted by German patrons whilst still in Kraków.

The first references to the Pole date from 1482, when he was recorded in Munich’s tax registers as a painter running a workshop in the ‘inner part of the town of Petri’. The lack of earlier documents makes it impossible to identify his teachers, the period of his training or to confirm his origins.

His standing within the Munich artistic community is best illustrated by the fact that, between 1493 and 1519, he served as chairman of the Munich Guild of St Luke on no fewer than fourteen occasions. He received prestigious commissions from the House of Wittelsbach, as well as from churches and monasteries in Munich and the surrounding area, and finally from the Munich city authorities, including commissions for wall paintings on the city gates (which have not survived) and seasonal decorations. It is also known that the artist was married to the daughter of the Munich stained-glass painter Martin, and his workshop is sometimes credited with designs for stained-glass windows.

Undoubtedly, the last decade was a period of the artist’s greatest creative activity; subsequently, he appears to have painted less, delegating more work to his workshop. Undoubtedly, he was not only a talented artist but also a capable entrepreneur who was able to successfully manage a fairly large studio. It should be noted that such a practice was common at the time; many works that are attributed to a single artist were in fact produced by a team of artists. Naturally, the master was responsible for the most important part of the work, and the other artists usually had to conform to his style; this was undoubtedly the case in Jan Polak’s workshop.

Undoubtedly, in terms of concept and key elements, these are the master’s works, but they were created with the involvement of other artists – pupils and journeymen. The master usually finished the key, and thus central, elements of the composition, as well as the faces of the most important figures. The other artists carried out preparatory work, but also painted certain details or less significant parts of the painting; hence the occasional variation and differing quality of execution within a single painting. Here, too, it is necessary to distinguish these from works that are ‘strictly’ of a workshop nature, that is, executed by the workshop but by collaborators.

Currently, around 90 works are attributed to Jan Polak’s workshop, although in the case of some of them this attribution raises serious doubts, and not all of them have survived to the present day.

The distinctive nature of Jan Polak’s work

Jan Polak’s style is characterised by vivid realism, which in some works verges on brutal naturalism. The figures depicted by the artist are full of dynamism, expression and emotion, which makes his works particularly moving. A distinctive feature of his work is his attention to detail in depicting the anatomy of the human body, which is particularly evident in dramatic scenes of Christ’s Passion, such as The Crucifixion from the Franciscan Church in Munich.

Polak often emphasised the physical suffering of his figures, depicting their tormented bodies with anatomical precision – from streaks of blood to realistic wounds and faces contorted with pain. This approach to realism went beyond the conventions of ornamentation and idealisation, verging on naturalism, which aimed to convey the raw truth of the human condition.

Expression is a key element of Polak’s style. His figures seem almost to ‘explode’ with emotion – from the deep despair of the Madonna in Passion scenes to the fury and brutality of the soldiers playing dice beneath the cross. The movement and gestures of the figures in his compositions are often dynamic, expressive and full of tension. Polak did not shy away from depicting figures in extreme poses, which emphasised the drama of the biblical scenes.

One example of this dynamism is the depiction of the two thieves crucified alongside Christ on the altarpiece in the Franciscan church. Their bodies are contorted and twisted in a way that not only suggests physical suffering but also heightens the emotional weight of the scene.

Flemish and Nuremberg influences

Polak drew inspiration from Flemish masters such as Rogier van der Weyden and Dirk Bouts. His works feature elements typical of Flemish painting, such as the rich detail of costumes, fabrics and accessories, as well as the painterly quality of the landscapes. Also characteristic of Polak were the ‘scenographic’ backgrounds of his paintings – rocky landscapes, architecture rich in detail, and crowds of anonymous figures.

At the same time, the artist was influenced by Nuremberg artists such as Hans Pleydenwurff and Michał Wohlgemuth. His compositions, however, are characterised by greater dynamism and emotional tension than the Nuremberg works. Whilst Pleydenwurff depicted scenes with detachment and solemnity, Polak emphasised drama and chaos, lending his works a unique character.

Symbolism and brutality

One of the distinguishing features of Polak’s work was his tendency to emphasise the brutal aspects of biblical scenes. In his paintings, one can discern both the influence of medieval mysticism and the new, Renaissance-era interest in the human body. This approach is best illustrated by the details of the negative characters – soldiers, thugs and persecutors – whom the artist depicted as grotesque, contorted faces with bulging eyes and unnaturally large mouths.

One of the most characteristic examples of this tendency is the figure of the soldier gambling for Christ’s garments in *The Crucifixion*. His face, with its enormous mouth and vulgar expression, is almost exaggerated, which emphasises his moral degradation.

Despite strong influences from various artistic traditions, Jan Polak developed his own style, which set him apart from his contemporaries. His works are characterised by an individual approach to religious subject matter, combining realism with drama. Polak pushed the boundaries of his era, revealing the harsh, often brutal truth about human suffering and emotions.

Jan Polak remains one of the most fascinating artists of the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries. His work, though partly forgotten, was a key element in the development of the Munich school of painting. His paintings, full of realism, dynamism and expression, contributed to the enrichment of European art of that period, and his style continues to inspire scholars and art lovers alike.

Works by Jan Polak

Altarpiece from the Benedictine monastery at Weihenstephan
1483–1489
Owner: Alte Pinakothek in Munich
Location: Diocesan Museum in Freising

1. Obverse: ‘St Benedict as the Father of Western Monasticism’, reverse: ‘Christ Crucified’
   Oil on panel
   235 × 133 cm
   Inv. No. 1397
   
2. Obverse: ‘The Death of the Saint’, reverse: ‘Christ on the Mount of Olives’
   Tempera on panel
   147 x 129 cm
   Inv. No. 1402
   
3. Obverse: ‘St Corbinian and the Bear’, reverse: ‘Christ Carrying the Cross’
   Tempera on panel
   147 x 129 cm
   Inv. No. 1400
   
4. ‘The Dispute of St Stephen’
   Tempera on panel
   151 x 126 cm
   Inv. No. 1396

Works attributed to Jan Polak (selection)

1. Paintings from the altarpiece of the high altar of the Franciscan Church of St Anthony in Munich
   1492
   Tempera and oil underpainting on panel, gilding
   Bavarian National Museum in Munich, Room 15 (as of 2024)

   The high altar (triptych), commissioned by Duke Albrecht IV of Bavaria and his wife Kunigunde of Habsburg, was created as a narrative Passion cycle comprising ten scenes. The scenes depicted below form a chronological cycle beginning with the Prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane, through the Arrest, the Passion and the Crucifixion, to the Entombment.

   1. Centre panel: ‘The Crucifixion’
      Oil on spruce panel
      235 x 279 x 2 cm
      Inv. No. MA 3716 a
      
   2. Right panel: obverse: ‘The Arrest of Jesus’, reverse: ‘Christ Carrying the Cross’
      Oil on spruce panel
      235 x 133 cm
      Inv. No. MA 3716 c
      
   3. Left panel: front: ‘Christ on the Mount of Olives’, reverse: ‘The Flagellation of Christ’
      Oil on panel
      235 x 133 cm
      Inv. No. MA 3716 b
      
   4. ‘Ecce Homo’
      Oil on spruce panel
      205 x 130 cm
      Inv. No. 10/220
      
   5. “The Entombment of Christ”
      Oil on spruce panel
      205 x 130 cm
      Inv. No. 10/219
      
   6. ‘The Crowning with Thorns’
      Oil on fir panel
      205 x 130 cm
      Inv. No. 10/218
      
   7. “The Crucifixion of Christ”
      Oil on fir panel
      235 x 133 cm
      Inv. No. 10/217
      
2. ‘St Helena’s Discovery of the Cross’
   c. 1490
   Oil on panel
   St Martin’s Basilica in Amberg, side chapel
   Article in the Polonika Database on this painting
   
3. Paintings from the high altar of the Blutenburg Castle chapel
   c. 1500
   Oil on panel
   The castle chapel at Blutenburg Castle in Munich
   
   1. ‘Throne of Grace’
      
   2. ‘The Baptism of Christ’
      
   3. ‘The Coronation of the Blessed Virgin Mary’
      
4. ‘Lantfried, Waldram and Eliland, founders of the monastery at Benediktbeuern’
   1494
   Tempera on panel
   88.5 x 236.7 cm
   Alte Pinakothek, Munich
   Inv. No. 659
   
5. ‘Portrait of a Young Man’
   1477 (?)
   Oil on panel
   37.5 cm x 27.5
   Städtische Galerie im Lenbachhaus und Kunstbau, Munich
   Inv. No. G277
   
6. Obverse: ‘The Nativity’, reverse: ‘The Meeting at the Golden Gate’
   c. 1500
   Tempera on panel
   83 x 60.5 cm
   Owner: Alte Pinakothek, Munich
   Exhibition venue: State Gallery, Burghausen
   Inv. No. 4554
   
7. ‘The Burial of St James the Greater’
   c. 1500
   Tempera on panel
   83 x 60.5 cm
   Owner: Alte Pinakothek, Munich
   Exhibition venue: Burghausen State Gallery
   Inv. No. 10649
   
8. Obverse: ‘Mary as Queen of Heaven’, reverse: ‘The Crucifixion of Peter’
   c. 1500
   Tempera on panel
   137 x 63 cm
   Owner: Alte Pinakothek, Munich
   Exhibition venue: Historical Museum, Regensburg
   Inv. No. 10396
   
9. ‘The Stigmatisation of St Francis’
   c. 1500
   Tempera on panel
   137 x 63 cm
   Owner: Alte Pinakothek, Munich
   Exhibition venue: Regensburg History Museum
   Inv. No. 9902
   
10. Paintings from the side altar of the Blutenburg Castle chapel
    c. 1500
    Oil on panel
    Blutenburg Castle chapel in Munich
    
    1. ‘Salvator Mundi surrounded by saints’
       
    2. Predella: ‘The Fourteen Holy Helpers’
       
11. Paintings from the side altar of the chapel at Blutenburg Castle
    c. 1500
    Oil on panel
    Castle chapel at Blutenburg Castle, Munich
    
    1. ‘The Annunciation to the Blessed Virgin Mary’
       
    2. Predella: ‘The Holy Family’
       
12. ‘The Calling of St James the Greater’
    c. 1500
    Tempera on panel
    79 x 37 cm
    Alte Pinakothek, Munich
    Inv. No. 10648
    
13. ‘The Flagellation of Christ’
    c. 1490
    Oil on panel
    95 x 75 cm
    Munich City Museum
    Inv. No. GM-IId/245
    
14. ‘Simon of Cyrene Helps Jesus Carry the Cross’
    c. 1490
    Oil on panel
    98 x 75 cm
    Munich City Museum
    Inv. No. GM-IId/246
    
15. Eight panels from the wings of the high altar of St Arsacius’s Church in Ilmmünster
    c. 1500
    Tempera on panel
    St Arsacius’s Church in Ilmmünster
    
    1. ‘St Arsacius Receives Episcopal Ordination’
       
    2. ‘The Death of St Arsacius’
       
    3. ‘The Beheading of Saint Arsacius’
       
    4. ‘The Transfer of the Saint’s Relics’
       
    5. ‘Scene of the Passion’
       
    6. ‘Scene of the Passion’
       
    7. ‘The Three Kings’
       
16. “Mary – the Mantle of Protection [in a dress with ears of corn] with the Sänftl family”
    1505–1510
    Oil on panel
    Cathedral of Our Lady in Munich
    
17. Series of murals
    1479 (?)
    St Wolfgang’s Church in Pipping, Munich
    Authorship disputed
    
    1. ‘The Dormition of the Blessed Virgin Mary’
       
    2. “The Wise and Foolish Virgins”
       
    3. The Passion cycle
       
    4. A series depicting Old Testament prophets
       
18. Portrait of a Benedictine monk
    1484
    Oil on panel
    57 x 41 cm
    Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid
    Inv. No. Nº INV. 325 (1934.17)
    
19. Four altar panels from the Los Angeles County Museum of Art
    1500
    Oil on panel
    167 x 50 x 2 cm (each panel)
    Los Angeles County Museum of Art
    
    1. ‘Adam and Eve’
       
    2. ‘The Three Visitors at Sarah and Abraham’
       
    3. ‘The Baptism of Christ’
       
    4. ‘Christ Teaching in the Temple’
       
20. Two paintings from the altarpiece featuring portraits of the patrons Wilhelm and Sabina von Haslang, from the workshop of Jan Polak
    1504
    Oil on panel
    52 x 48 cm (each)
    Städtische Galerie im Lenbachhaus und Kunstbau, Munich
    Inv. No. G830 / G831