The iconography of the tomb of Innocent XI seems clear. The Pope is accompanied by allegories of Faith and Valour, and the whole is crowned by the Odescalchi coat of arms. Doubts surround the bas-relief on the pedestal: is it really a representation of the Battle of Vienna, and if so, where is King John III Sobieski?

Innocent XI - Pope of the Warring States

The pontificate of Innocent XI, or Benedetto Odescalchi, fell between 1676 and 1689, at a time when there was a major military conflict between the Ottoman Empire and several European states, above all Austria and the Republic. Its most famous highlight - though by no means the end of the struggle - was the Battle of Vienna in 1683. In the clash at the walls of the Habsburg Empire's capital, a united Christian force under the command of Jan III Sobieski defeated the army of the Ottoman Empire. The Polish king sent a letter to Innocent XI notifying him of the victory and the banner captured in the battle. The following year, the Pope bestowed upon him the title of Defender of the Faith ('Defensor Fidei'), and the Holy League was founded in Linz, with the Republic of Poland, Austria and Venice joining, and Russia two years later.

Drawings and models

Innocent XI died in 1689. Conceptual work on his tomb in St Peter's Basilica began on the initiative of his nephew, Duke Livio Odescalchi, who organised a competition to design and produce the work. Several leading sculptors competed, including Pierre Legros the Younger, Pierre-Étienne Monnot, Domenico Guidi and Angelo de Rossi. In the end, the concept for the tombstone was developed by the painter Carlo Maratti. His influence can be seen very clearly when one juxtaposes Monnot's initial terracotta sketch (before 1697) with the impressive almost three-metre-high model made of wood and terracotta (1697-1698), now held in the collection of the Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica. The intermediate stages of the composition's development are documented in Maratti's surviving sketches.

They do not, however, show any more concrete solution to the relief on the pedestal beneath the papal figure. The first proposal only appears on the Monnot model and is somewhat different from the final realised work. We can therefore assume that, while the composition of the main part of the tombstone, with the seated figure of Innocent XI and the allegories of Faith and Valour resting on volutes, was already worked out by Maratti at the sketching stage, the relief representation of the battle was created in the last phase of the work's design and is the French sculptor's own idea. The tomb of Innocent XI was solemnly unveiled in 1701.

Relief depicting the battle (of Vienna?)

The relief depicts the expulsion of the troops besieging the city. In the foreground we can see cannons and bullets lying next to them, an angel figure hovers above the walls and buildings, holding a sword (now lost). In the centre and to the right of the composition, soldiers in antique armour are advancing on warriors in turbans. This is undoubtedly a depiction of a clash between Christian and Turkish forces, but we cannot be sure that this is the Battle of Vienna. The city visible at the left edge of the scene seems more like some kind of idea of a walled city, rather than a simplified view of the Habsburg capital. Similarly, among the Christian forces, it is difficult at first glance to identify John III Sobieski or, for example, Charles V of Lorraine fighting on the battlefield.

Cristina Ruggero believes that the bas-relief depicts not so much a specific military clash as the Holy League's defence of Christianity against the infidels during the pontificate of Innocent XI, or even: a vision of the Church triumphing over those who have worked against it over the centuries. The city would thus symbolise Rome - the See of Peter, or perhaps Christianity in general - and the pope himself patronising the scene from on high would become, above all, the governor of Christ on earth. If we accept this concept, it becomes understandable that the soldiers wear timeless antique armour and that no specific heroes of either the Battle of Vienna or other military struggles from the pontificate of Innocent XI can be found among them. For the only victors are Christ and his Church, symbolised by the angel with a sword over the city walls, the figure of the Pope or the allegory of the Faith directing the gaze towards the successor of St Peter.

Is there a king or is there not?

King John III Sobieski had particular merit as a defender of the Faith. It was he who, from the beginning of his reign, sought to create a great anti-Turkish league. Initially, the only person convinced of these plans was Innocent XI, who consistently gave generous financial support to those involved in the fight against the infidels. The growing threat led the Republic to ally itself with Leopold I of Habsburg, then also with Venice and Russia. The Battle of Vienna was undoubtedly the turning point of the clashes with the Ottoman Empire, and the triumph of the Christian forces reverberated throughout Europe. It is therefore not surprising that the depiction on the Pope's tombstone was read in this context. Already Francesco Valesio, describing in his diary the ceremony of the inauguration of the monument, which took place on 26 July 1701 and was attended among others by the queen-widow Maria Kazimiera Sobieska, made it clear that the bas-relief depicts precisely the Battle of Vienna. Joseph Jérôme de Lalande, among others, also did the same in his 1769 edition. 'Voyage d'un françois en Italie'.

Francesca Ceci therefore proposes that the most prominent of the group of horsemen placed on the axis near the upper edge, not far from the angel with a sword, should be identified with the Polish king. The figure is pointing with his hand to a banner raised by one of the Ottomans, which would be a reference to the banner sent by John III Sobieski to Innocent XI. Even if we accept this hypothesis, it should be noted that this would be a rather symbolic representation, as we are not dealing here with a portrait of a specific person.

It is difficult to come to a definitive conclusion. Cristina Ruggero's interpretation of the tombstone, according to which people - including the Pope - are merely instruments in God's hands, is obviously close to the spirituality of the Baroque era. Indeed, despite the fact that John III Sobieski strove intensely and effectively for his own popularity after the Battle of Vienna and (at least partly) was able to exploit this triumph for propaganda, he began his letter to the Pope with the words: "Venimus, vidimus, Deus vicit" (We came, we saw, God won). This is naturally also a propaganda ploy - a reference to the words of Julius Caesar and Emperor Charles V of Habsburg - but after all, there is no contradiction here. The glory of the defenders of the faith supported the achievement of their political goals, and their political and military advantages in turn strengthened the Church and Christianity on the ground.

Battle of Vienna - relief from the tombstone of Pope Innocent XI